Introduction
Technology
is advancing rapidly and is impacting on education more than at any other time. (Winn, 2002) . Devices we use to
access these new technologies is changing and mobile hand held devices are now
most common, their use spreading right across the educational sphere (Pegrum, 2013) (Kukulska-Hulme, 2013) . Mobile technologies are
gathering momentum because they provide access anywhere, anytime (MacCallum, 2013) , these devices
separate themselves from laptops and notebooks due to their greater mobility
and the mobility of the todays learner (Pegrum, 2013) (El-Hussein, 2010) . Mobile
technologies afford the luxuries of portability, connectivity, flexibility,
immediacy and engagement (Pegrum, 2013) (Li, 2013) and demolish
the need to tie particular activities to particular places or particular times (Traxler,
2010) .
The implementation of any new technology undergoes an adoption period which Straub (2009) describes simply as
a change in behaviour. Many innovation adoption theories abound, Rogers 1995
Theory of Diffusion, Davis’ 1989 Theory Adoption Model (TAM) (MacCallum, 2013) (Straub, 2009) to name a few and
they each have a central theme, that is the adoption of technology will most
accepted when it is easy to use and “fits” within an individual’s capabilities.
This “fit” is described by the term self-efficacy. This term is used in relation
to the way in which an individual would rate their own capabilities in using
Information Communication Technologies (ICT). This self-efficacy is derived
from experience which sits within the social cognitive theory. MacCallum (2013) cites many studies,
Akour 2009, Lu & Viehland 2008 and Park and Chen 2007 who all concluded
that prior experience and confidence represents a higher chance of adoption of
new technology.
The implementation of any new technology undergoes an adoption period which Straub
Technology in education has also
impacted teaching. These new technologies are leading innovation and the
resulting adoption. Ting (2012) references Hughes
2005 who stated that in educational terms, innovation changes a students’
learning routine including the content, cognitive processes, and problem
solving skills. Mobile devices are providing students with the capacity to
learn anywhere, anytime whilst still providing them with the same information
and meaningful learning experiences and catering for learning styles that a
traditional setting would offer.
Mobile devices are complementing recognised pedagogies
such as social constructivism, behaviourism and situated learning (Caballe, 2010) (Pegrum, 2013) and these devices
also encourage personalised learning (Pegrum, 2013) . These pedagogies
are rooted in the traditional delivery modes of educational theories and practice
however research by El-Hussein and Cronje (2010) question why they
remain when the learning environment has had such an upheaval. Kukulska-Hulme (2013) sees the demand for
new pedagogical guidance due to the portable technologies that will produce
unpredictable outcomes for learners. Mac Callum and Jeffery (2013) do note though that
many existing theoretical models have been modified to explain student
acceptance and adoption of mobile learning within an educational setting. Cabelle,
Xharab and Barollic (2010) see a
shifting from traditional educational paradigms to an emergent educational
paradigm that sees students as active in their own learning. These new
paradigms are underscored by traditional learning pedagogies but these same
concepts fail to capture the distinctiveness of mobile learning (Caballe, 2010) . When we think about the practice of education
we consider that educational theories are derived from philosophy and
ideology, reactions to social, political and economic situations and are constructed
from educational practice (Koetting, 2004) . Traxler’s 2007 works, cited in
El-Hussein (2010) , notes that theorists
have differing expectations of a theory and argues that mobile learning, within
the context of instructional design, has changed the landscape of the
traditional classroom settings. Nyir agrees, arguing that mobile devices have
undermined or eliminated traditional classrooms (El-Hussein,
2010) .
Mobile learning has opened up a world to learners to study wherever, whenever
they like, but this new world has many unchartered waters and commentators like
Traxler 2007 warn about the need for virtual barriers or constraints (El-Hussein, 2010) .
Mobile learning is seems supports collaborative learning. Collaborative learning can be defined as social interactions with the aim of producing deeper knowledge(Sing, 2011) .
These devices enhance learner individuality and sense of community and provide
motivation to learn through participation in collaborative learning activities (El-Hussein,
2010) .
A recent review of experimental research was conducted with the authors firstly
defining collaborative learning as placing students into groups to encourage
shared meaning and to develop critical thinking skills and reflection. The
authors found through examination of the collected literature an increase in
engagement and participation, an increase in completion of tasks and an
increase in student feedback and reflection (Hsu, 2013) . Cabelle, Xharab and
Barollic (2010) suggest mobile
learning facilitates social interaction and collaboration. The authors suggest
that learning by collaboration often happens informally with many people not
recognising this informal learning as learning. The authors recognise the
importance of mobile technologies, because of their size and ease of use, as
being able to provide the potential to support collaborative learning
activities
Mobile learning is seems supports collaborative learning. Collaborative learning can be defined as social interactions with the aim of producing deeper knowledge
Mobile learning or more
specifically, mobile devices, have had its share of distractors who point out
many disadvantages of learning via a mobile device. Research conducted by Chen,
Chang, & Wang, 2008; Corlett, Sharples, Chan, & Bull, 2005,
Kukulska-Hulme, 2009,
Thornton & Houser,
2005 all point to the limitations of usability including tiny screen size, low
computational power, small battery capacity, limited input interface and narrow
network bandwidth (Ting, 2012) .
Thornton and Houser deemed the small screen size as unsuitable for learning new
content and Kukulsha-Hulme suggest that usability issues affect real engagement
with educational tasks (Ting, 2012) . Kukulska-Hulme (2013) also reminds us of
the diversity of learning activities and that learning is a complex process
which a mobile device can never fully satisfy. Traxler (2010) questions the
assurance of educational quality when the delivery component (mobile devices)
is so diverse and volatile. There are also issues of privacy, security and
trust and ethical dilemmas including data retention and image capture of
people/s (Kukulska-Hulme, 2013) .
This writer is aware that many more studies
will be conducted to validate the value of mobile learning, Hsu and Ching
conducted their research partly due to the rapid growth in computing but also
because of that growth’s potential to education (2013) . There are many
challenges to overcome before the full benefits of mobile learning are
recognised (Caballe, 2010) .
Annotation
No.1
Mac Callum, K.,
Jeffrey, L.
Australasian
Journal of Educational Technology, 2013, 29(3).
The influence of
students' ICT skills and their adoption of mobile learning
A summary of the central theme and scope of this
article
The authors presented a works on the increased
focus of mobile learning and discussed the factors that promote or inhibit the
uptake of mobile technologies. In particular the authors have addressed the
question of how Information Communication Technologies (ICT) skills of learners
affect the adoption of a new technology by conducting a study of learners from
different tertiary institutes.
A comment on the intended audience
The authors’ intent was to address a gap in
the literature surrounding adoption of technologies. The intent was then for others
in the field to expand upon their paper.
The purpose of the study
To
determine how the ICT skills of an individual learner affects the uptake of a
new technology.
Methodology (Design, Participants, Setting)
The
study was aimed at tertiary students, randomly selected from three institutions
who participated voluntarily. Each was introduced to the study and via a site
visit and the option was given to complete the questionnaire via hard copy or
electronic means.
A range of complex equation modelling was employed and the data collected reinforced the research question, Stronger ICT skills increase the likelihood of technology adoption.
A range of complex equation modelling was employed and the data collected reinforced the research question, Stronger ICT skills increase the likelihood of technology adoption.
How this particular work informs or supports the
topic
The
works assisted in the comprehension of the attitudes of learners when adopting
new technologies. The paper also informed me of the technology adoption models
utilised and defined terms related to learners and their ICT skills. This paper
helped in relating to other works I utilised by making meaning of ICT skills and
adoption
Annotation No.2
El-Hussein, M.O.M., & Cronje, J.C.
El-Hussein, M.O.M., & Cronje, J.C.
Educational
Technology & Society, 13 (3), 2010 12–21.
Defining
Mobile Learning in the Higher Education Landscape.
A summary of the central theme and scope of this
article
This article attempts to define learning with mobile devices by breaking
down the definition into three broad areas:
1. Mobility of the technology
2. Mobility of the learner
3. The mobility and dynamics of learning processes and
flow of information
The authors recognise the impact that mobile devices have on an
individual’s daily life, both socially and educationally. The authors also
identify the gap between the uses of mobile devices as being primarily in a
social context, far less than in educational settings and suggest that
“visionary” educators and designers and developers need to address this
platform as an educational tool.
The authors also seek to find answers to why mobile devices are leading rapidly changing learning practices while the learning theories that support those practices are not keeping up.
The authors also seek to find answers to why mobile devices are leading rapidly changing learning practices while the learning theories that support those practices are not keeping up.
A comment on the intended audience
The
authors drew on existing literature to assist designers of instructional theory
and practice.
The purpose of the study
The
authors’ intent was to critically examine works within the scope of their
research and to see the connectedness between information retrieved, then
analyse existing relationships between theory and practice
Methodology (Design, Participants, Setting)
The
authors drew from existing literature and categorised it into three differing
themes, mobile technology, nomadic learner and mobile learning. They then
expanded out those terms and used current literature to make meaning of each of
the words. The
How this particular work informs or supports the
topic
This
work informs the reader of continuing evolution of learning with mobile
devices. The article addresses the need for designers and educators to embrace
mobile technologies by first identifying the meaning and then addressing the
needs of the learners in this current educational climate.
Annotation
No.3
Straub,
E. T.
Review of Educational
Research June 2009, Vol. 79, No. 2, pp. 625–649
Understanding
Technology Adoption: Theory and Future Directions for Informal Learning
A summary of the central theme and scope of this
article
This article assists the reader to comprehend the theories of adoption of
technologies. Straub discusses the factors that place barriers on an innovation
which affect the time frame to the adoption of that particular technology.
Straub addresses several adoption models and notes that whilst the different
theories relate to behavioural change there are some commonalities between each
of them.
A comment on the intended audience
The
author appears to be aiming this article at researchers in the field to assist
with development of educational theories when related to adoption of technology.
He poses questions like why one technology succeeds whilst another fails and
how negative experiences of technology for teachers (especially during the
teacher’s learning phase) affect the adoption of a technology.
The purpose of the study
To
provide insight into different technology adoption models
Methodology (Design, Participants, Setting)
This
article was not a study but rather an illustration of various technology
adoption models. The author also recognises that technology adoption is a
complex and social process. Adoption also has implications on the cognitive and
contextual aspects and therefore processes need development to address these
issues.
How this particular work informs or supports the
topic
This
work informs the reader of the various adoption models, defining them, which
brings a better understanding of those themes. The article then discusses
barriers for adoption and processes to aid adoption.
Annotation
No.4
Ting, Yu-L.
J. Educational Computing
Research, Vol. 46(2) 119-134, 2012
The Pitfalls of
Mobile Devices In Learning: A Different View And Implications
For Pedagogical
Design
A summary of the central theme and scope of this
article
This article represented the “flipside” to the value seen in mobile
devices for learning. The author discussed terms such as usability which
relates to the ease of use of a form of technology. The article discusses
several studies to improve the usability of mobile devices. Those studies ranged
from adaptation of technologies, including the way content is developed and
displayed, adaptation of pedagogies, including the creation of “mini lessons”
to reduce content, and cognitive capability considerations, using altered
content to increase use of a learners long and working memory capacity.
A comment on the intended audience
The
author details the pitfalls of mobile devices from student perspective thereby
creating technological and pedagogical issues for developers, designers to
address and overcome.
The purpose of the study
To
comprehend the disadvantages of mobile devices as defined by students. The
author determined that by contextualizing mobile device use, including the way
digital data is displayed, the learning environment is arranged and learning
activities are structured provision is then attained to create meaning full
learning experiences.
Methodology (Design, Participants, Setting)
The
study consisted of sixth graders using a hand held device whose task it was to
open a picture file and determine and inform the difference between the digital
picture and the actual portrait used in the study to identify a burglary
suspect. The results suggested the way content is contextualised
provides inclusion and engagement which increases usability.
How this particular work informs or supports the
topic
The
article informs the reader of the disadvantages of mobile hand held devices.
The study, although simplified, suggests that usability concerns can be reduced
if designers consider the content displayed and the contextualisation of the
device and the pedagogical design of learning.
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